Therefore, they are also less affected by the effects of Ottoman occupation of East-Central Europe. Table 1. Population relationships based on pairwise average allele frequency differentiation F st estimations. A formal test of admixture, the 4-population test, was applied to find evidence that East-Central Europeans and Roma have admixed with Turks Patterson et al. The Turkic people Chuvash from East Europe was also considered in the test to try to rule out other possible Turkic ancestry.
The 4-population test showed a violation of the expected phylogenetic tree, confirming that East-Central-Europeans are admixed with Turks. In order to examine whether Roma and Turks are admixed, we considered Onge samples, which group is an accurate surrogate of the South Asian ancestry of Roma.
Since recent admixture between Onge and West Eurasians did not occur, European ancestry components cannot influence our test Moorjani et al. Besides Onge, we used Turkmens as a Turkic group closely related to Turks. The 4-population test showed also a significant violation in this setup and confirmed that Roma are also admixed with Turks Supplementary Table 2.
We applied F 4 ratio estimation to measure the proportion of Turkish ancestry in the Roma Patterson et al. In our setup, we calculated the Turkish ancestry proportion of Roma using Punjabi as second source population of the admixture, and using Turkmens as a sister group of Turks, which are the least admixed with Roma, according to our analyses. Han Chinese were considered as outgroup in this test. F 4 ratio estimation shows that Roma have To detail further the relationship of East-Central Europeans and Roma to Turks, and assess the Turkish ancestry in East-Central Europeans and Roma, we estimated the average pairwise Identity-by-descent segment sharing between certain populations.
We created a merged dataset of the Turks, Roma and groups living in the formerly Ottoman-ruled regions, as well as EUR populations.
The average sharing between other Europeans and Turks and between Sardinians and Turks were 0. Figure 4. Population relationships based on average IBD sharing estimations. We computed the genome-wide pairwise average shared IBD length between certain groups. The migration route of Roma included Turkey and the neighboring Caucasus region, therefore the rate of admixture with Turks and populations from the Caucasus should be close to each other if an admixture between Roma and Turks did not occur during the Ottoman occupation.
Preliminary ALDER analyses applying multiple reference populations showed that Portuguese samples are appropriate surrogates for representing a population not affected by the Ottoman era and Hungarians are an appropriate surrogate of populations from the formerly Ottoman occupied East-Central European region.
If one generation equals 29 years Fenner, , admixture of East-Central Europeans and Turks dates back to — years ago, which closely approaches the time frame when Ottomans occupied the East-Central European region.
Figure 5. ALDER analysis results. Admixture between Roma and Turks occurred This is consistent with historical data regarding their appearance in the Pannonian basin, and can also indicate that Roma could have also admixed with Turks during their migration in Anatolia.
These methods helped to place the investigated populations in a Eurasian context, which showed that East-Central Europeans and Turks belong to two well-separated groups. Roma, due to their nomadic nature, scattered severely between Europe and South Asia. However, most Roma individuals clustered somewhat more tightly to each other, scattering between South Asia and the populations of the Caucasus, Middle East and Central Asia.
Ancestry analysis and F st calculations showed that East-Central Europeans have significant Turkish ancestry, even compared to other formerly Ottoman-occupied East-Central European populations. These analyses also revealed that Roma might have remarkable Turkish ancestry compared to the populations of neighboring regions of Turkey, which also fall on the migration route of the ancestors of recent Roma.
The 4-population test results showed that gene flow between East Europeans and Turks occurred. This result suggests that the test revealed Turkish ancestry from the Ottoman occupation of East-Central European territories.
The 4-population test showed also that Roma and Turks are admixed, and as we did in case of East-Central Europeans, we confirmed with average IBD sharing estimation that this admixture could originate from the former Ottoman rule of East-Central Europe, since Turkish ancestry in Roma shows a higher degree than the ancestry of populations living adjacent regions of Turkey.
To assess the significance of average IBD sharing difference values between investigated populations or groups, we also calculated the average IBD sharing of Turks with Sardinians, which group lives separately from the continent on the Sardinia Island, therefore they are largely isolated from European demographic events.
This investigation suggested that average IBD sharing differences of investigated populations with Turks are significant. We estimated also the date of the admixtures in order to further investigate and provide evidence for the proposed admixture of East-Central Europeans and Roma with Turks during the Ottoman occupation. In case of East-Central Europeans, the obtained admixture date interval corresponds to the time interval when Ottomans were present in East-Central Europe.
Ottoman presence in the region solidified approximately with the Battle of Kosovo , and fall of Ottoman rule in East-Central Europe is associated with the successful campaign led by the Habsburgs, which resulted in the Treaty of Karlowitz signed in Elsie, ; Abou-El-Haj, ; Abou-el-Haj, This analysis strengthened our proposal that Turkish ancestry in East-Central Europeans can originate from the Ottoman presence in Europe, and ancestry from Turkic people in Roma could be derived also from the times of the Ottoman occupied Europe.
We confirmed that the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into East-Central Europe left its mark on local populations, contributing significantly to their Turkic ancestry. Using genome-wide autosomal SNP array data, we were able to find a similar geographical pattern in the genetic makeup of European populations, as studies based on Y haplogroups found.
Population structure showed that Western and Eastern European populations are well-separated from each other. Ancestry analysis, testing for admixture and IBD segment analyses further separated OEC groups from the rest of Europe, showing that ancestry derived from the Middle Eastern area is also observable in autosomal data. We revealed also that Romani people could have acquired Turkish ancestry not only during their migration to Europe, but also at the time of Ottoman presence in Europe, when they were already the largest ethnic minority of the area.
All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. ZB and BIM evaluated and interpreted the results. All authors were involved in this work. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Abou-El-Haj, R. Ottoman diplomacy at karlowitz.
Abou-el-Haj, R. The formal closure of the ottoman frontier in Europe: Alexander, D. Fast model-based estimation of ancestry in unrelated individuals. Genome Res. Atzmon, G. Google Scholar. Balaresque, P. A predominantly neolithic origin for European paternal lineages. PLoS Biol. Battaglia, V. Y-chromosomal evidence of the cultural diffusion of agriculture in Southeast Europe.
Behar, D. The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people. Nature , — Browning, B. Improving the accuracy and efficiency of identity-by-descent detection in population data. Genetics , — Cole, J.
Ethnic Groups of Europe. Crowe, D. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Cruciani, F. Phylogeographic analysis of haplogroup E3b E-M y chromosomes reveals multiple migratory events within and out of Africa. Forensic Sci. Elsie, R. Historical Dictionary of Kosova. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. I explain how different the Turks here in Germany are, especially in terms of educational background. Also, I come from Istanbul, and people know Istanbulites are more modern. Plus, I have these conversations also with Turks born and raised here.
For example, they are surprised I am fluent in English. Some interviewees are concerned about reproducing this distinction. I explained to the nurse that Turkey is a diverse country with varying skin colors. At other times, I am not that patient, and I get angry about being judged by where I come from.
Yet, I think that we—Turkish people—are much more judgmental than Germans who are quite open-minded. I do not like this at all, but I do it too. Similarly, Duygu, who is ethnically Tatar, says that no particular image comes to her mind when she thinks of a Turkish person. Because it is that mixed, it might as well be that I look Turkish.
When my dates ask me the dreaded origins question, I flirtatiously ask them to guess. They typically list Mediterranean countries all the way up to Greece and stop there in confusion some move on to Latin America. My interviewees, on the other hand, all have university degrees, and their parents are mostly university graduates except for a few who are high school graduates.
One can observe the same pattern in religious beliefs. As such, the academics and white-collar professionals I have interviewed are outliers when it comes to socio-economic status and lifestyle. It also explains why almost all feel estranged from Turkey.
However, national identity is not only about phenotypic features and demographic details. Multi-layered and constantly negotiated, it is also about emotions, language, cultural codes, and familiarity. Her work examines how certain historical, cultural and political developments inform questions of belonging and identity-formation in multi-ethnic and multi-religious societies.
Abadan-Unat, Nermin. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books. European Review 21 3 : — Kaya, Ayhan, and Ferhat Kentel. Martin, Philip. Geneva: International Labor Office. Ray, Annie. Scholars, they said, need more evidence to substantiate some of the claims the conference was trying to advance. Again, İnan was the first to criticise. Togan was the second critic of the scientific basis of the whiteness campaign. It was Galip, however, and not Togan, who enjoyed political favour and was, in fact, about to be made the Turkish Minister of Education in Togan too experienced public shaming at the first Turkish Congress of History.
In his presentation, Galip gave a remarkable and characteristic piece of evidence: the conference-goers themselves. After criticising a Western scholar for classifying the Turks into the yellow race, Galip told the audience to set aside scientific talk for a minute and look at one another. Such were the scientific methods of the Turkish whiteness campaign. But their presumptions were widely shared. F rom the early s, for the next two decades, these elite Turkish modernisers set out to teach a peasant population their own greatness through mass education and literacy campaigns.
The book began by attacking Western science for its misconceptions about Turks. The Central Themes of Turkish History made a number of notable and fanciful assertions that found their way into school curricula, and established themselves as orthodoxy among Turkish educators and scholars.
They include: 1 Turks are the original white race; 2 Turks are the descendants of an ancient, central Asian civilisation, which is the oldest and most advanced in the world; 3 Turks spread civilisation to the rest of the world when they migrated out of central Asia, their mythical homeland; 4 when they encountered other races, ancient Turks assimilated and Turkified them.
Turkish people learned that the cradle of Western whiteness and civilisation was to be found in Asia. Turkish modernisers saw no paradox in looking eastward to Asia for evidence of the achievements and qualities that they believed would make them white and European. But the modernisers were notably cool toward Islam. They saw modernisation as a collective characteristic embedded in racial identities and leading toward an advanced and homogenous society.
Islam, however, held no particular appeal. The Turkish modernisers set out to turn Western racial classifications upside down. They understood, at some level, that race science was a human construct serving political goals. They too, however, used it to try to establish themselves as the superior creator of human civilisation. These campaigns and educational efforts enjoyed authority in Turkey for decades, until at least the midth century.
They have also left a deep mark in the collective identity of the country. It was not until the s that the effects of the Turkish race-science campaign faced a real correction. The past few decades have witnessed a rising interest and nostalgia for Ottoman and Islamic history.
It shows itself in Turkey through the popularity of Ottoman-related cultural artifacts and experiences, such as Ottoman calligraphy, cuisine and the hamam or Turkish bath. The Turkish state has also taken a path very different from its midth-century pursuit of whiteness and Westernness.
It has embraced its Ottoman past and showed this change in foreign policy with strong ties to the Middle East and the Islamic world, at the expense of formerly close alliances with the West. The exhibit glorified this sultan and led the Turkish media to immense interest in Ottoman heritage. In Turkey today, the idea prevails that Turks are the descendants of the Ottomans, rather than a prehistoric superior civilisation in central Asia. Modern biomedicine sees the body as a closed mechanistic system.
But illness shows us to be permeable, ecological beings. Nitin K Ahuja. They are spreading like branching plants across the globe.
Should we rein cities in or embrace their biomorphic potential?
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